Risks of using anonymous proxy servers

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Risks of using anonymous proxy servers

In using a proxy server (for example, anonymizing HTTP proxy), all data sent to the service being used (for example, HTTP server in a website) must pass through the proxy server before being sent to the service, mostly in unencrypted form. It is therefore possible, as has been demonstrated, for a malicious proxy server to record everything sent to the proxy: including unencrypted logins and passwords.

By chaining proxies which do not reveal data about the original requester, it is possible to obfuscate activities from the eyes of the user's destination. However, more traces will be left on the intermediate hops, which could be used or offered up to trace the user's activities. If the policies and administrators of these other proxies are unknown, the user may fall victim to a false sense of security just because those details are out of sight and mind.

The bottom line of this is to be wary when using proxy servers, and only use proxy servers of known integrity (e.g., the owner is known and trusted, has a clear privacy policy, etc.), and never use proxy servers of unknown integrity. If there is no choice but to use unknown proxy servers, do not pass any private information (unless it is properly encrypted) through the proxy.

An important fact is that even secure https (SSL) connections can not protect from a sniffing proxy. It has been demonstrated that the SSL handshake can be intercepted on the proxy. The browser will show a secure, encrypted connection but the proxy is able to read everything in clear text. When encrypting email traffic through a proxy, one more technique is frequently used to stop the encryption: The proxy intercepts the email servers response to the encryption (TLS, SSL) request and fakes a negative response. Almost all email clients use a default setting that uses cleartext transfer in such a case. Using a proxy is always dangerous if you do not own or trust it, keep this in mind. Even high anonymity and privacy services like Tor or Cloakfish can not protect from these risks. Whenever a proxy is used you are at risk that someone "in the middle" can read your data.

In what is more of an inconvenience than a risk, proxy users may find themselves being blocked from certain Web sites, as numerous forums and Web sites block IP addresses from proxies known to have spammed or trolled the site.

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Suffix proxy

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Suffix proxy

A suffix proxy server allows a user to access web content by appending the name of the proxy server to the URL of the requested content (e.g. "en.wikipedia.org.6a.nl").

Suffix proxy servers are easier to use than regular proxy servers. The concept appeared in 2003 in form of the IPv6Gate and in 2004 in form of the Coral Content Distribution Network, but the term suffix proxy was only coined in October 2008 by "6a.nl

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Content filter

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Content filter

Many work places, schools and colleges restrict the web sites and online services that are made available in their buildings. This is done either with a specialized proxy, called a content filter (both commercial and free products are available), or by using a cache-extension protocol such as ICAP, that allows plug-in extensions to an open caching architecture.

Requests made to the open internet must first pass through an outbound proxy filter. The web-filtering company provides a database of URL patterns (regular expressions) with associated content attributes. This database is updated weekly by site-wide subscription, much like a virus filter subscription. The administrator instructs the web filter to ban broad classes of content (such as sports, pornography, online shopping, gambling, or social networking). Requests that match a banned URL pattern are rejected immediately.

Assuming the requested URL is acceptable, the content is then fetched by the proxy. At this point a dynamic filter may be applied on the return path. For example, JPEG files could be blocked based on fleshtone matches, or language filters could dynamically detect unacceptable language. If the content is rejected then an HTTP fetch error is returned and nothing is cached.

Most web filtering companies use an internet-wide crawling robot that assesses the likelihood that a content is a certain type (i.e. "This content is 70% chance of porn, 40% chance of sports, and 30% chance of news" could be the outcome for one web page). The resultant database is then corrected by manual labor based on complaints or known flaws in the content-matching algorithms.

Unfortunately, web filtering proxies are not able to peer inside secure sockets HTTP transactions. As a result, users wanting to bypass web filtering will typically search the internet for an open and anonymous HTTPS transparent proxy. They will then program their browser to proxy all requests through the web filter to this anonymous proxy. Those requests will be encrypted with https. The web filter cannot distinguish these transactions from, say, a legitimate access to a financial website. Thus, content filters are only effective against unsophisticated users.

A special case of web proxies is "CGI proxies". These are web sites that allow a user to access a site through them. They generally use PHP or CGI to implement the proxy functionality. These types of proxies are frequently used to gain access to web sites blocked by corporate or school proxies. Since they also hide the user's own IP address from the web sites they access through the proxy, they are sometimes also used to gain a degree of anonymity, called "Proxy Avoidance".

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Circumventor

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Circumventor

A circumventor is a method of defeating blocking policies implemented using proxy servers. Ironically, most circumventors are also proxy servers, of varying degrees of sophistication, which effectively implement "bypass policies".

A circumventor is a web-based page that takes a site that is blocked and "circumvents" it through to an unblocked web site, allowing the user to view blocked pages. A famous example is elgooG, which allowed users in China to use Google after it had been blocked there. elgooG differs from most circumventors in that it circumvents only one block.

Students are able to access blocked sites (games, chatrooms, messenger, offensive material, internet pornography, social networking, etc.) through a circumventor. As fast as the filtering software blocks circumventors, others spring up. However, in some cases the filter may still intercept traffic to the circumventor, thus the person who manages the filter can still see the sites that are being visited.

Circumventors are also used by people who have been blocked from a web site.

Another use of a circumventor is to allow access to country-specific services, so that Internet users from other countries may also make use of them. An example is country-restricted reproduction of media and webcasting.

The use of circumventors is usually safe with the exception that circumventor sites run by an untrusted third party can be run with hidden intentions, such as collecting personal information, and as a result users are typically advised against running personal data such as credit card numbers or passwords through a circumventor.

An example of one way to circumvent a content-filtering proxy server is by tunnelling through to another proxy server, usually controlled by the user, which has unrestricted access to the internet. This is often acheived by using a VPN type tunnel, such as VPN itself or SSH, through a port left open by the proxy (eg. Port 443 is nearly always left open to allow the use of HTTPS). Through the use of encryption, tunnelling to a remote proxy server, provided the remote proxy server is itself secure, is not only difficult to detect, but also difficult to intercept.

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Reverse proxy server

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Reverse proxy server

Main article: Reverse proxy

A reverse proxy is a proxy server that is installed in the neighborhood of one or more web servers. All traffic coming from the Internet and with a destination of one of the web servers goes through the proxy server. There are several reasons for installing reverse proxy servers:

* Encryption / SSL acceleration: when secure web sites are created, the SSL encryption is often not done by the web server itself, but by a reverse proxy that is equipped with SSL acceleration hardware. See Secure Sockets Layer. Furthermore, a hoster can provide a single "SSL proxy" to provide SSL encryption for an arbitrary number of hosts; removing the need for a separate SSL Server Certificate for each host, with the downside that all hosts behind the SSL proxy have to share a common DNS name or IP address for SSL connections.
* Load balancing: the reverse proxy can distribute the load to several web servers, each web server serving its own application area. In such a case, the reverse proxy may need to rewrite the URLs in each web page (translation from externally known URLs to the internal locations).
* Serve/cache static content: A reverse proxy can offload the web servers by caching static content like pictures and other static graphical content.
* Compression: the proxy server can optimize and compress the content to speed up the load time.
* Spoon feeding: reduces resource usage caused by slow clients on the web servers by caching the content the web server sent and slowly "spoon feeds" it to the client. This especially benefits dynamically generated pages.
* Security: the proxy server is an additional layer of defense and can protect against some OS and WebServer specific attacks. However, it does not provide any protection to attacks against the web application or service itself, which is generally considered the larger threat.
* Extranet Publishing: a reverse proxy server facing the Internet can be used to communicate to a firewalled server internal to an organization, providing extranet access to some functions while keeping the servers behind the firewalls. If used in this way, security measures should be considered to protect the rest of your infrastructure in case this server is compromised, as its web application is exposed to attack from the Internet.

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Open proxy server

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Open proxy server

Main article: Open proxy
.Because proxies might be used to abuse, system administrators have developed a number of ways to refuse service to open proxies. Many IRC networks automatically test client systems for known types of open proxy. Likewise, an email server may be configured to automatically test e-mail senders for open proxies.

Groups of IRC and electronic mail operators run DNSBLs publishing lists of the IP addresses of known open proxies, such as AHBL, CBL, NJABL, and SORBS.

The ethics of automatically testing clients for open proxies are controversial. Some experts, such as Vernon Schryver, consider such testing to be equivalent to an attacker portscanning the client host. [1] Others consider the client to have solicited the scan by connecting to a server whose terms of service include testing.

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Forced proxy

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Forced proxy

The term "forced proxy" is ambiguous. It means both "intercepting proxy" (because it filters all traffic on the only available gateway to the Internet) and its exact opposite, "non-intercepting proxy" (because the user is forced to configure a proxy in order to access the Internet).

Forced proxy operation is sometimes necessary due to issues with the interception of TCP connections and HTTP. For instance interception of HTTP requests can affect the usability of a proxy cache, and can greatly affect certain authentication mechanisms. This is primarily because the client thinks it is talking to a server, and so request headers required by a proxy are unable to be distinguished from headers that may be required by an upstream server (esp authorization headers). Also the HTTP specification prohibits caching of responses where the request contained an authorization header.

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Transparent and non-transparent proxy server

Transparent and non-transparent proxy - Xtechnology®Network.Server -

Transparent and non-transparent proxy server

The term "transparent proxy" is most often used incorrectly to mean "intercepting proxy" (because the client does not need to configure a proxy and cannot directly detect that its requests are being proxied). Transparent proxies can be implemented using Cisco's WCCP (Web Cache Control Protocol). This proprietary protocol resides on the router and is configured from the cache, allowing the cache to determine what ports and traffic is sent to it via transparent redirection from the router. This redirection can occur in one of two ways: GRE Tunneling (OSI Layer 3) or MAC rewrites (OSI Layer 2).

However, RFC 2616 (Hypertext Transfer Protocol -- HTTP/1.1) offers different definitions:

"A 'transparent proxy' is a proxy that does not modify the request or response beyond what is required for proxy authentication and identification".
"A 'non-transparent proxy' is a proxy that modifies the request or response in order to provide some added service to the user agent, such as group annotation services, media type transformation, protocol reduction, or anonymity filtering".

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Intercepting proxy server

Intercepting Proxy - Xtechnology®Network.Server -

Intercepting proxy server

An intercepting proxy (also known as a "transparent proxy") combines a proxy server with a gateway. Connections made by client browsers through the gateway are redirected through the proxy without client-side configuration (or often knowledge).

Intercepting proxies are commonly used in businesses to prevent avoidance of acceptable use policy, and to ease administrative burden, since no client browser configuration is required.

It is often possible to detect the use of an intercepting proxy server by comparing the external IP address to the address seen by an external web server, or by examining the HTTP headers on the server side.

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Hostile proxy

Hostile Proxy Server - Xtechnology®Network.Server -

Hostile proxy

Proxies can also be installed in order to eavesdrop upon the dataflow between client machines and the web. All accessed pages, as well as all forms submitted, can be captured and analyzed by the proxy operator. For this reason, passwords to online services (such as webmail and banking) should always be exchanged over a cryptographically secured connection, such as SSL

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Anonymizing Proxy Server

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Anonymizing proxy server

An anonymous proxy server (sometimes called a web proxy) generally attempts to anonymize web surfing. These can easily be overridden by site administrators, and thus rendered useless in some cases. There are different varieties of anonymizers. One of the more common variations is the open proxy. Because they are typically difficult to track, open proxies are especially useful to those seeking online anonymity, from political dissidents to computer criminals................

Access control: Some proxy servers implement a logon requirement. In large organizations, authorized users must log on to gain access to the web. The organization can thereby track usage to individuals.

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WEB PROXY

WEB PROXY - Xtechnology®Network.Server -

Content-filtering web proxy

Further information: Content-control software

A content-filtering web proxy server provides administrative control over the content that may be relayed through the proxy. It is commonly used in commercial and non-commercial organizations (especially schools) to ensure that Internet usage conforms to acceptable use policy.

Some common methods used for content filtering include: URL or DNS blacklists, URL regex filtering, MIME filtering, or content keyword filtering. Some products have been known to employ content analysis techniques to look for traits commonly used by certain types of content providers.

A content filtering proxy will often support user authentication, to control web access. It also usually produces logs, either to give detailed information about the URLs accessed by specific users, or to monitor bandwidth usage statistics. It may also communicate to daemon based and/or ICAP based antivirus software to provide security against virus and other malware by scanning incoming content in real time before it enters the network.

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WEB PROXY DEFINITION AND FUNCTION

WEB PROXY DEFINITION AND FUNCTION - Xtechnology®Network.Server -

Web proxy

A proxy that focuses on WWW traffic is called a "web proxy". The most common use of a web proxy is to serve as a web cache. Most proxy programs (e.g. Squid) provide a means to deny access to certain URLs in a blacklist, thus providing content filtering. This is usually used in a corporate environment, though with the increasing use of Linux in small businesses and homes, this function is no longer confined to large corporations. Some web proxies reformat web pages for a specific purpose or audience (e.g., cell phones and PDAs).

AOL dialup customers used to have their requests routed through an extensible proxy that 'thinned' or reduced the detail in JPEG pictures. This sped up performance, but caused trouble, either when more resolution was needed or when the thinning program produced incorrect results. This is why in the early days of the web many web pages would contain a link saying "AOL Users Click Here" to bypass the web proxy and to avoid the bugs in the thinning software.

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Proxy Server Definition

PROXY SERVER DEFINITION - Xtechnology®Network.Server -

Proxy servers implement one or more of the following functions:-

[edit] Caching proxy server

A caching proxy server accelerates service requests by retrieving content saved from a previous request made by the same client or even other clients. Caching proxies keep local copies of frequently requested resources, allowing large organizations to significantly reduce their upstream bandwidth usage and cost, while significantly increasing performance. Most ISPs and large businesses have a caching proxy. These machines are built to deliver superb file system performance (often with RAID and journaling) and also contain hot-rodded versions of TCP. Caching proxies were the first kind of proxy server.

The HTTP 1.0 and later protocols contain many types of headers for declaring static (cacheable) content and verifying content freshness with an original server, e.g. ETAG (validation tags), If-Modified-Since (date-based validation), Expiry (timeout-based invalidation), etc. Other protocols such as DNS support expiry only and contain no support for validation.

Some poorly-implemented caching proxies have had downsides (e.g., an inability to use user authentication). Some problems are described in RFC 3143 (Known HTTP Proxy/Caching Problems).


Another important use of the proxy server is to reduce the hardware cost. In organization there may be many systems working in the same network or under control of one server, now in this situation we can not have individual connection for all systems with internet. We can simply connect those systems with one proxy server and proxy server with the main server.

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Server Definition

SERVER DEFINITION - Xtechnology®Network.Server -
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1. Definitions

1.1 In this Licence, the following terms shall have the following meanings:

Authorised User - Current members of the staff and faculty of the Licensee (whether on a permanent, temporary, contract or visiting basis) and individuals who are currently studying at the Licensee's institution, who are permitted to access the Secure Network from within the Licensee's Premises and from such other places where Authorised Users work or study (including but not limited to Authorised Users' offices and homes, halls of residence and student dormitories) and who have been issued by the Licensee with a password or other authentication, together with other persons who are permitted to use the Licensee's library or information service and access the Secure Network but only from computer terminals located within the Licensee's Premises.

Commercial Use - Use for the purposes of monetary reward (whether by or for the Licensee or Authorised User) by means of the sale, resale, loan, transfer, hire or other form of exploitation of the Licensed Material.

Fee - The subscription fee payable by the Licensee for the Licensed Materials

Licensed Material - The electronic material of the Publisher for which the Licensee has paid the Fee.

Licensee - The individual or single site organisation that purchases Licensed materials from the Publisher.

Licensee’s Premises - An institution located within one metropolitan boundary under single administration which may academic or non-academic.

Secure Network - A network which is only accessible to Authorised Users approved by the Licensee whose identity is authenticated at the time of login and whose conduct is subject to regulation by the Licensee.

Server - The server, either the Publisher's server or a third party server designated by the Publisher, in which the Licensed Material is mounted and may be accessed.

2. Grant of Licence

2.1 The Publisher agrees to grant to the Licensee the non-exclusive and non-transferable right to access the Licensed Material from the Server for the purposes of research, teaching and private study, subject to the terms and conditions of this Licence, and the Licensee agrees to pay the Fee.

2.2 On termination of this Licence, the Publisher shall use its reasonable endeavours to provide the Licensee with continuing access from the Server to that part of the Licensed Material which was published and paid for within the Subscription Period except where termination is due to breach of the Licence.

3. Permitted Uses

3.1 The Licensee, subject to Clause 4 below, may:

3.1.1 Allow Authorised Users to have access to the Licensed Material via the Secure Network.

3.1.2 Supply to Authorised Users, by electronic or other means, copies of one or more individual items taken from the Licensed Material.

3.1.3 Display, download or print a reasonable part of the Licensed Material for the purpose of internal promotion or testing of the service, or for training groups of Authorised Users.

3.1.4 Use the Licensed Material as part of an integrated information service for Authorised Users that will include links between the Licensed Material and the Licensee’s own indexes.

3.2 Authorised Users, subject to Clause 4 below, may:

3.2.1 Search, view, retrieve and display the Licensed Material.

3.2.2 Print single copies of individual items taken from the Licensed Material.

3.2.3 Electronically save individual items taken from the Licensed Material for personal use.

3.2.4 Distribute single copies of individual articles taken from the Licensed Material in print or electronic form to other Authorised Users.

3.2.5 Post single copies of the Licensed Materials on servers accessible only to Authorized Users via the secure network.

3.3 Course Packs - The Licensee may incorporate parts of the Licensed Material in Course Packs for the use of Authorised Users in the course of instruction at the Licensee's institution, but not for Commercial Use. Each such item shall carry appropriate acknowledgement of the source, listing title and author of the extract, title and author of the work, and the publisher. Copies of such items shall be deleted by the Licensee when they are no longer required for such purpose.

3.4 Inter-library Loan - The Licensee may supply a single printed copy of an electronic original of an individual document from the Licensed Content to an Authorized User of another library within the same country by post, fax or Ariel, for personal use or scholarly, educational or scientific research but not for Commercial Use.

4. Prohibited Uses

4.1 Neither the Licensee nor Authorised Users may:

4.1.1 Remove or alter the authors’ names or affiliations or the Publisher’s copyright notices or other means of identification or disclaimers as they appear in the Licensed Material.

4.1.2 Systematically make print or electronic copies of multiple extracts of the Licensed Material for any purpose.

4.1.3 Provide or make available by electronic means to any third party who is not an Authorised User a retained electronic copy of any part of the Licensed Material.

4.1.4 Mount or distribute any part of the Licensed Material on any electronic network, other than the Secure Network.

4.2 The Licensee and Authorised Users may not, without the Publisher's explicit written permission:

4.2.1 Use the whole or any part of the Licensed Material for any Commercial Use.

4.2.2 Distribute the whole or part of the Licensed Material to anyone other than Authorised User.

4.2.3 Publish, distribute or make available the Licensed Material, works based on the Licensed Material or works which combine it with any other material, other than as permitted in this Licence.

4.2.4 Alter, abridge, adapt or modify the Licensed Material, except to the extent necessary to make it perceptible on a computer screen to Authorised Users. For the avoidance of doubt, no alteration of the words or their order is permitted.

5. Licensee’s undertakings

5.1 The Licensee shall:

5.1.1 Use all reasonable endeavours to ensure that all Authorised Users are appropriately notified of the importance of respecting the intellectual property rights in the Licensed Material.

5.1.2 Use all reasonable endeavours to ensure that all Authorised Users are made aware of and agree to abide by the terms and conditions of this Licence.

5.1.3 Use all reasonable endeavours to monitor compliance and immediately on becoming aware of any unauthorised use or other breach, take all reasonable steps both to ensure that such activity ceases immediately and to prevent any recurrence, and shall inform the Publisher thereof.

5.1.4 Issue passwords or other access information to enable access to the Secure Network only to Authorised Users and use all reasonable endeavours to ensure that Authorised users do not divulge their passwords or other access information to any third party.

5.1.5 Use all reasonable endeavours to ensure that only Authorised Users are permitted access to the Licensed Material.

6. Publisher’s undertakings

6.1 The Publisher warrants to the Licensee that it is the owner of the copyright in the Licensed Material or that it is duly authorised to control the copyright contained in the Licensed Material and that the Licensed Material used as contemplated by this Licence does not infringe any copyright or other proprietary or intellectual property rights of any person. The Publisher shall indemnify and hold the Licensee harmless from and against any loss, damage, costs, liability and expenses arising out of any legal action taken against the Licensee claiming actual or alleged infringement of such rights. This indemnity shall survive the termination of this Licence for any reason. This indemnity shall not apply if the Licensee has amended the Licensed Material in any way not permitted by this Licence.

6.2 The Publisher shall use reasonable endeavours to:

6.2.1 Make the Licensed Material available to the Licensee via the Server.

6.2.2 Make available the electronic copy of each journal issue in the Licensed Material as soon as reasonably possible after the date of publication of the printed version.

6.2.3 Ensure that the Server has adequate capacity and bandwidth to support the usage of the Licensee at a level commensurate with the standards of availability for information services of similar scope operating via the World Wide Web; as such standards evolve from time to time over the term of this Licence.

6.2.4 Make the Licensed Material available to the Licensee and to Authorised Users at all times and on a twenty-four hour basis, save for routine maintenance, and to restore access to the Licensed Material as soon as possible in the event of an interruption or suspension of the service.

6.3 The Publisher reserves the right at any time to withdraw from the Licensed Material any item or part of an item for which it no longer retains the right to publish, or which it has reasonable grounds to believe infringes copyright or is defamatory, obscene, unlawful or otherwise objectionable.

6.4. The Publisher undertakes to use reasonable endeavours to provide or make arrangements for a third party to provide an archive of the Licensed Materials for the purpose of long term preservation of the Licensed Materials.

6.5 The Publisher confirms to the Licensee that usage statistics covering the online usage of the journals included in this licence will be provided. The Publisher further confirms that such usage statistics will adhere to the specifications of the COUNTER Code of Practice.

6.6 EXCEPT AS EXPRESSLY PROVIDED IN THIS LICENCE, THE PUBLISHER MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF DESIGN, ACCURACY OF THE INFORMATION CONTAINED IN THE LICENSED MATERIAL, MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS OF USE FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. THE LICENCED MATERIAL IS SUPPLIED “AS IS”.

6.7 EXCEPT AS PROVIDED IN CLAUSE 6 .1, UNDER NO CIRCUMSTANCES SHALL THE PUBLISHER BE LIABLE TO THE LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER PERSON, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO AUTHORISED USERS, FOR ANY SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, INCIDENTAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OF ANY CHARACTER ARISING OUT OF THE INABILITY TO USE, OR THE USE OF, THE LICENSED MATERIAL. IRRESPECTIVE OF THE CAUSE OR FORM OF ACTION, THE PUBLISHER’S AGGREGATE LIABILITY FOR ANY CLAIMS, LOSSES, OR DAMAGES ARISING OUT OF ANY BREACH OF THIS LICENCE SHALL IN NO CIRCUMSTANCES EXCEED THE FEE PAID BY THE LICENSEE TO THE PUBLISHER UNDER THIS LICENCE IN RESPECT OF THE SUBSCRIPTION PERIOD DURING WHICH SUCH CLAIM, LOSS OR DAMAGE OCCURRED. THE FOREGOING LIMITATION OF LIABILITY AND EXCLUSION OF CERTAIN DAMAGES SHALL APPLY REGARDLESS OF THE SUCCESS OR EFFECTIVENESS OF OTHER REMEDIES. REGARDLESS OF THE CAUSE OR FORM OF ACTION, THE LICENSEE MAY BRING NO ACTION ARISING FROM THIS LICENCE MORE THAN SIX (6) MONTHS AFTER THE CAUSE OF SUCH ACTION ARISES.

7. Mutual undertakings

7.1 Each party shall use its best endeavours to safeguard the intellectual property, confidential information and proprietary rights of the other party.

8. Term and Termination

8.1 In addition to automatic termination upon the expiry of the subscription period (unless renewed), this Licence shall be terminated if:

8.1.1 Either party or any of its current employees commits a material or persistent breach of any term of this Licence and fails to remedy the breach (if capable of remedy) within thirty days of notification in writing by the other party.

8.1.2 Either party becomes insolvent or becomes subject to receivership, liquidation or similar external administration.

8.2 On termination, all rights and obligations of the parties automatically terminate except for

8.2.1 Those specified in Clauses 6.1 and 7.1.

8.2.2 All obligations in respect of Licensed Material to which access continues to be permitted as provided in Clause 2.2.

8.3 On termination of this Licence by the Publisher for cause, as specified in Clauses 8.1.1, the Licensee shall immediately cease to distribute or make available the Licensed Materials to Authorised Users except as provided in Clause 2.2.

8.4 On termination of this Licence by the Licensee for cause, as specified in Clause 8.1.1 above, the Publisher shall forthwith refund the proportion of the Fee that represents the paid but unexpired part of the Subscription Period.

9. General

9.1 This Licence contains the full and complete understanding between the parties and supersedes all prior arrangements and understandings relating to the subject matter of this Licence.

9.2 Alterations to this Licence shall be valid only if they are in writing and signed by both parties.

9.3 Neither party shall be liable in any way for failure or delay in performing its obligations under this Licence if the failure or delay is due to causes outside the reasonable control of the party in default.

9.4 In the event that any provision of this Licence is held to be invalid, the remainder of the provisions shall continue in full force and effect.

9.5 This Licence shall be governed by and construed according to English Law.

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